“The lifting of the snake’s head had caught my eye and it was not until the head had been raised some two or three feet from the ground and the hood expanded that I realised it was a hamadryad. It was the most beautiful snake I had ever seen” wrote Jim Corbett in his book Man-Eaters of Kumaon (The Kanda Man-eater) (1944).
A king cobra juvenile observed in Kumaon, Uttarakhand. Photo: Jignasu Dolia
The lone place that the king cobra (a.k.a. hamadryad) occupies on the taxonomic classification tree is rather befitting. It symbolises the supreme uniqueness of this species in the animal kingdom. The king cobra, it is suspected, is really multiple species. A species complex if you will. Only thorough DNA studies and morphological comparisons between the various populations of this snake will tell. For now, it is one single species – Ophiophagus hannah, the sole member of genus Ophiophagus. And this is partly what makes the wide range of habitats that different populations of this species occupy, and the array of size, colour/pattern variations that exist, all the more mind-boggling!
But, it is specifically the king cobra population found in the mountainous state of Uttarakhand in northern India that has our rapt attention for several reasons. The fact that we don’t know much about its adaptations (if any), ecology and behaviour adds a certain mystique to the quest for learning more about the snake in its unlikely habitat. King cobras are normally associated with dense tropical forests of southern India, such as Agumbe in Karnataka or with the mangrove forests of Sundarbans for example, as most of the limited literature on these snakes has emerged from these places. But, the king cobra boasts a fairly wide distribution in India. In southern India, it is found across the Western Ghats that run through Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Goa up to Southern Maharashtra. In the east, it is found in the states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Sikkim and the Andaman Islands. In northeast India, the king cobra occurs in all seven states, while in northern India, it is found in Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Despite its wide range in south/southeast Asia to which it is native, this snake, the largest of all venomous snakes in the world, is relatively rare.
The Himalayan foothills make up a part of the king cobra’s distribution range in India. Photo: Jignasu Dolia
What is baffling about its presence in the Himalayan foothills of Uttarakhand is its capacity to survive in the subtropical/temperate climate and elevation of the Kumaon and Garhwal Hills! Until 2012, the highest recorded elevation at which a king cobra was ever sighted was at 2,181 m. in the Mussoorie hills of Uttarakhand. But in October 2012, a king cobra hatchling was found inside the Indian Veterinary Research Institute’s campus in Mukteshwar, Nainital District, at approximately 2,300 m.! Although there are unconfirmed reports of king cobras being found up to 3,500 m. in Nepal and about 3,000 m. in northeastern India, this is currently the highest verified elevation for a king cobra sighting in the world. The hatchling sighted in Mukteshwar exhibited some sluggish behaviour, probably due to the cold that had set in at that time of the year. Although there are historical reports of this snake from Pakistan as well, in all likelihood, Uttarakhand harbours the northern latitudinal and altitudinal limits of the species, and proves that this large snake is probably as well adapted to live in sub-tropical forests, as it is to living in the tropical rainforests at lower elevations.
The winter temperatures in the Kumaon hills come close to freezing and often plummet to sub-zero, with some areas experiencing snowfall and frost. Average minimum temperature during December-February is about 5 degree Celsius. It is natural then for animals, especially the cold-blooded reptiles, to go into hibernation during winter, and most snakes (and other reptiles) probably do. However, there is an anecdotal report of a king cobra sighting near Gagar village, Kumaon, at an elevation of over 2,000 m., basking at regular intervals in peak winter (December-January). In fact, our (Jignasu and his team’s) observations from the ongoing decade-long study of the nesting ecology of king cobras in Kumaon show that the mating and hatching rituals occur about two months later in the year as compared to their counterparts in southern India. The hatchlings in one of the nests I (Jignasu) was monitoring at an elevation of 1,600 m. were born in early October, while the average minimum ambient temperature was as low as 8 degree Celsius!
You should know that encountering a king cobra’s nest in the wild is a rare phenomenon. A better part of the knowledge of the presence of a significant king cobra population in a sub-tropical and temperate region such as Uttarakhand has been acquired only in the recent years. Or has it? Jim Corbett, in his famous memoir Man-eaters of Kumaon, recounts multiple direct and indirect encounters he had with ‘hamadryads’ or king cobras way back in the early 1900s. For instance, he wrote: “On arrival at the stump to which it had been tied I saw that the buffalo had been dragged off the path and partly eaten, and on examining the animal I found that it had not been killed by the tigress but that it had in all probability died of snake-bite (there were many hamadryads in the surrounding jungles), and that, finding it lying dead on the path, the tigress had eaten a meal off it and had then tried to drag it away.”
Despite historical records of this snake occurring in Kumaon, it was only in 2006 that a king cobra’s nest was discovered for the first time from the region. Since then, almost every year, nests are regularly reported from these hills. This raises so many questions about the king cobra’s thermal biology and its breeding/nesting ecology. A poikilotherm or cold-blooded animal (whose body temperature is dependent on environmental/ambient temperature) such as the king cobra ideally, like other reptiles who inhabit cool climates, should hibernate during winters. But does it? This warrants a dedicated scientific investigation.
A female king cobra sits on top of her nest, coiled and alert. King cobras are the world’s only snakes to build aboveground nests to lay eggs in. Photo: Jignasu Dolia
King cobras are the world’s only snakes to build aboveground nests to lay eggs in, and the females (though two anecdotal reports from Arunachal Pradesh reported both sexes indulging in nest care) usually guard their nests rather dedicatedly. Each nest, though outwardly appears to be a dull (at times even diminutive) mound of leaves, is in fact built by the female with a lot of care and purpose (excuse the anthropomorphism!). King cobra nests are usually architecturally sound structures, each possessing a neat nest chamber (within which the eggs are contained), well protected and insulated from external elements such as heat, cold, and water. The female king cobra meticulously builds her nest using her body, forming loops with it and dragging leaves gradually on to the mound. She then usually sits on top of her nest, coiled and alert, barely ever leaving it for the next 5-8 weeks. However, she invariably leaves the nest prior to egg-hatching, which can take 70-100 days depending on the incubation temperature. What exactly triggers the female king cobra to abandon her nest prior to hatching is not known. Sometimes she leaves the nest within a few weeks after constructing it, while at other times she stands guard for up to 2-3 months, leaving the nest just a few days prior to hatching of her eggs. Is it hunger, her own body condition, her perception of threat (be it from natural egg-predators or human disturbance), or a combination of these and more that triggers her departure? Food for thought and research! Perhaps, the unique ability to build such thermally-efficient nests, is why king cobras can breed/nest in the cold regions of Uttarakhand. But, there is still a lot more to learn and understand about the ecology and natural history of this species, especially from the higher elevations of its distributional range.
The Greek word Ophiophagus, that features in the king cobra’s scientific name, means ‘snake-eating’. This snake essentially feeds on other snakes, even including members of its own species! Apart from snakes, it is also known to feed on monitor lizards in the wild. In the Western Ghats, adult king cobras are known to largely prey on the Indian rat snake. There have been reports of king cobras feeding on pythons too! Even the venomous snake brigade including other species of cobras, pit vipers and banded kraits make it to this apex predator’s menu, which possibly indicates a built up immunity to their venom. But, what about the snake’s diet in the cold and high region of Kumaon? Apart from rat snakes, trinkets and Himalayan white-lipped pit-vipers that have been reported to have been consumed, are there other species it feeds on? If the king cobra doesn’t hibernate in winter, then how does it fuel and maintain its energy source? Answers to these questions still elude us.
The unique king cobra population of Uttarakhand and its habitat, along with the rest of the king cobra populations in other parts of India as well, face myriad anthropogenic threats today. Photo: Jignasu Dolia
The king cobra’s adaptations and ability to not just survive, but thrive in sub-tropical highlands such as the hills of Uttarakhand have intrigued many an expert. Several interesting conjectures have emerged, such as –
- The Kumaon population of king cobras is probably a different subspecies/species.
- Climate change could be causing a gradual upward shift in the range of king cobras, with warming temperatures in the higher altitudes. But, a lot more sustained and long-term research needs to be done to be sure.
The bottom line is that there is simply so much we don’t know! But, that also makes for an exciting potential scientific prospect! Radio-telemetry studies can further shed more light on the hitherto elusive life of the king cobra. Also, because genus Ophiophagus is likely to be a species complex, the threats facing any particular population may become further acute. The more we learn about the species, the better conservation strategies we can build.
Sadly, unhindered destruction or alteration of the king cobra’s habitat seems to be a major threat faced by the species throughout its distributional range. In Kumaon, frequent forest fires (which usually occur in Chir Pine forests and often precede/coincide with the nesting period of the king cobra) could be an added threat to the species. Also, a newer and likely underestimated, emerging threat is that of road kills, as a result of increased road-network and vehicular traffic. As more and more roads plough through the snake’s mountain habitat, disrupting connectivity and fragmenting the already shrinking forests, the long-term survival of the species is in jeopardy. Moreover, rising human population and the resulting increased proximity between king cobras and humans could exacerbate human-snake conflict, resulting in higher rates or persecution. Although there have been no documented king cobra bite cases from Uttarakhand yet, people are usually terrified at the sight of a snake, let alone a venomous one! Last, but not the least, the ever intensifying climate change threatens to alter its ecosystem forever.
A road-killed king cobra hatchling found in Nainital District. Photo: Jignasu Dolia
On the other hand, the king cobra could prove to be an apt flagship species for the conservation of its habitat. The awe and fascination that this iconic species elicits in people cannot be underestimated and this factor can be put to constructive use to generate goodwill and support for conservation. A key to the long-term conservation of this species is to raise awareness at the grassroots level. To highlight the ecological significance of the king cobra in particular, and other snakes in general, should be at the forefront of our conservation efforts. While we are aware that convincing lay people to conserve snakes – probably the most misunderstood and maligned of all creatures – is a steep and uphill task, try we must and try we can! Further, protecting the king cobra will end up protecting a large area of its habitat and other species therein, as each king cobra demands a relatively large space (a male occupies 6-8 sq. km.), healthy prey population, and suitable natural conditions to survive and reproduce. The king cobra features in the Schedule II, Part II, of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972). In the eyes of the law, it enjoys a similar level of importance and legal protection as the tiger or the Asian elephant. However, ground realities are vastly different! If only the same amount of conservation attention could be accorded to this charismatic species, it will go a long way in safeguarding its future.
The king cobra has truly earned its revered status among naturalists and scientists. Its regal uniqueness, unmatched intelligence, impressive ability to adapt, and sheer size never cease to impress all. The king cobras of Kumaon are special and there is an urgent need to conserve them.
What unknown, mind-bending, scientific discoveries await investigation? Only time will tell.
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About the authors:
Purva Variyar is a conservationist, science communicator and conservation writer. She works with the Wildlife Conservation Trust and has previously worked with Sanctuary Nature Foundation and The Gerry Martin Project.
Jignasu Dolia is a trained wildlife biologist from the National Centre for Biological Sciences & Centre for Wildlife Studies, Bangalore. Dolia has been working as an independent researcher, studying and conserving king cobras in the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand for almost a decade. He is also involved in grassroot-level snake-awareness programmes. Currently, Dolia is pursuing his PhD on king cobras from the Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. He is also a Wildlife Conservation Trust – Small Grants awardee (2017-18).
Author Jignasu Dolia would like to thank the Uttarakhand Forest Department for permission and logistical support and is grateful to the following organisations for funding parts of his study -Mohamed Bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund, Idea Wild, Wildlife Conservation Trust and the Rufford Foundation.
Disclaimer: The authors are associated with Wildlife Conservation Trust. The views and opinions expressed in the article are their own and do not necessarily reflect the views and opinions of Wildlife Conservation Trust.
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